Tourism Guide

In the year of 1952, some skeletons and tools were discovered in Kadiköy, which is a big and an old district of Asian part of Istanbul.  These findings which were discovered during an excavation were dated back to 3000 years B.C. This important discovery showed that Asian part of Istanbul was inhabited almost for 5000 years. These were not first findings that showed the signs of old settlements in Istanbul. In 1871, also large stone blocks were found under Topkapi Palace during digging for laying railway. This was an evidence of the old settlements before Greeks settled in Istanbul. Historians accept that Thracians were the first ones to setle in Istanbul. One of the most knew historians, Herodotus also confimed that this was true. Another community that settled in Istanbul in the past is Phoenicians who were known to be dealing with commerce. When we come near to today, we see Iaonians. Sailors from Ionia are known to found colonies at Cyzicus, on the shores of Marmara Sea and Trapezus on the shores of Black Sea in the 8th century B.C. People who lived in Bythinia and the Thinis also took control of a town opposite to Kadiköy.

 
In the 3rd century B.C., in the period of Byzantium, Celt army arrived to Istanbul and the army surrounded the city. This invasion was important because it was the first invasion realized by countries from Balkan Peninsula. It was not a simple invasion; it was one of the longest invasions in the world, lasting for a thousand years. At the end, Byzantium had to accept to pay a tribute to save from destructions of the invasion. Celtic government became unsuccessful and it collapsed in 220 B.C.

Another important event in the history of Istanbul is conquest of Byzantium by Rome. Rome conquered Byzantium towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. The emperor Severus was impressed by the beauty of Istanbul and he started to restore it. Istanbul began to be enlarged by Emperor Constantine starting from 325. Emperor Constantine took the throne of the Empire from Rome and gave it back to Byzantium in 330. This was an important date because Istanbul started to be seen as a magnificient city in the history of the world starting from that date. After 330, Roman Latin culture affected Byzantium for almost 250 years. Roman administration and law systems were accepred and Latin started to be used as the official language.

While Istanbul was called as Secunda Roma at this period, it began to be called “Nova Roma” after 5th century. Because of the name of the city, people living in Istanbul were called as “Romani”.

The Roman Empire divided in two parts in 395 and Byzantium became the capital of the East Roman Empire. Starting from that time, Byzantium had to live under the threat of invasion by the Goths and the Huns. For hundreds of years the history of the city was an endless series of invasions from without, and religious and political struggles within.

Byzantium started to be under Greek cultural influence from beginning of the 7th century, with Heraclius coming to power. Greek became the official language of the state. The reign of Justinian (527-565) is the most brilliant period in Byzantium's history. It is the Golden Age of the Empire, when art and science were at their peak. It was during this period that Saint Sophia was built during this period. This period is also important for conquests. Justinian conquered Italy and North Africa and drove the Vandals and Persians out of Anatolia. But, death of Justinian became the beginning of the decline of Byzantium. The government of Byzantium could control the empire no longer.

the Persian Sasanids who were coming from the East seized Chalcedon (Kadiköy) in 610.  The Avars came to the walls of the city in 622. The Russians, prepared to descend on Byzantium in 860. Hungarians also besieged the city in 934 and 943. In 668 the armies of Islam beseiged Byzantium for many times. They destroyed Byzantine fleet in 655. Until 781, the Arabs mourned 5 expeditions. In the year of 1090, Asian Turks reached to west side of Istanbul and  took possession of Thrace.

But Byzantium was not only dealing with the dangers and threats coming from outside. Inside the empire, it could be said that everything was unstable. Jewish, Russian, German and Turkish soldiers had started to setle in Istanbul in addition to former inhabitants. And all of these people were not living in peace. Whoever had the control of the Thrace protected the interested of their fellows and worked in advantage of them.  Different cultures and religions were dividing the city into different parts. Rising to the power, the Syrians and Amorite dynasties started the Iconoclast movement. The adherents of the movement fought against images of Christ and the Saints, so they destroyed many important works of art between 717 and 820, then again between 820 and 867. And in 1050, separation of the churches became definitive because of the struggle with the Western Church.
 
Italians were also an important therat for Byzantium. Venice that was liberated from Byzantine domination had become a merchant republic and its influence area was increasing. Then, the Italians came as far as Byzantium and settled there to deal with commerce. Because of their power, Byzantium gave them some commercial privileges, and they were exempted from taxes and customs duties. These privileges led them to settle deeper in Istanbul and come near to Golden Horn. They established 4 colonies here and their wealth started to increase. Genoese had the permission to install themselves at Galata. This deveopment led this district to have a rapid expansion.     

Huge animosity of the Byzantines led the way going right to end of Italians wealth in Istanbul. Former inhabitants of Istanbul rose against Italians and  and they massacred 6000 persons. This can be said to be end of Italian expansion in Byzantium.

Crusades also have a significant role in the shaping of history of Byzantium. In the 4th Crusade which was diverted to Byzantium, crusaders disembarked at Yesilköy. Byzantium fell after a long fight in 1204. Latinas destroyed every corner of the town, they destroyed all the sacred boks they found and ravaged churches. Valuable things like gold and silver were taken from people. Until 1261, Latinas reatined Byzantium. Latin occupation had ended the golden age of Byzantium. An deven Byzantium had the power back again, it could never recover the ruins of this destruction. 

Ottomans became the primary enemy of Byzantium starting from the beginning of the 15th century. The Anatolian Turks became independent and self-governing people in the Balkan Peninsula. They had started to get power and day by day they were having more victories. The Sultan Mehmet II who was only at the age of 21 built the fortress of Rumeli Hisari, and blocked the routes. On the night of April 21 the young Sultan had 67 ships hauled from the banks of Tophane to the summit of Beyoglu, and from there down by Kasimpasa, into the Haliç because Byzantines had closed the Golden Horn. The decline of Istanbul did not long last and the City was conquered on the 29th of May 1453.

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Istanbul had virtually fallen into ruin when it passed into Turkish hands. Clavijo, who came to the city in 1403, wrote that the city was empty and the doors of St. Sophia were lying on the ground. But, to repair the ruins of the city, the walls were repaired after the conquest, it was the first architectural task. Fatih (Mehmet the Conqueror) ordered a palace to be built on the side of the Forum of Theodosius looking over the Golden Horn and an inner fortress inside the Castle of the Seven Towers. Before these buildings were completed, the capital was transferred from Edirne to Istanbul. The first mosques and tombs were built in Eyub.

Unlike Byzantien tradition, the city began to expand and develop in the Golden Horn, Galata, Uskudar and the Bosphorus.

It is not so easy to see in this the influence of the earlier Turkish traditions of settlement, of the influences of the love of nature on their nomadic character. A document of the time states that there exist 3951 houses appertaining to Turks, 3151 appertaining to Greeks, 1647 to Jews, and 1048 to other ethnic groups, together with 3,667 shops in the city. In Galata there were 535 Turkish owned houses, 572 Greek, 332 Frank, 62 Armenian houses, and 260 shops. The population during the period of Fatih was approximately 120,000. Fatih brought 60,000 people brought as settlers.

If we speak in general, it is striking to note that the main functions of the various important chief areas of the city in Turkish Islamic times were the same as they had been in ancient times and in Byzantine Constantinople: at the point of the peninsula whereon was the Acropolis, palaces were always built. The Agora stayed a public square in Byzantine times; it was alike with the Augusteon and the area in front of St. Sophia. The Neorion Harbor has yet been called by the identical name in the twelfth century arid was used also by the Ottomans. This can be regarded as a natural output of their topographical concordance of their functions. Some say it is by chance and some say by fate, but at all events the Ottomans set up their administration buildings on the hill where the "Strategion" had been situated (Babiali, the Sublime Porte).

Another element which had played an important role shaping the geograpy of the city was commerce that was kept on the banks of the Golden Horn too much. The Flour, wood, and fish markets carried on their functions in the same areas. In Mehmet’s times the Conqueror the Ic Bedesten, inner nucleus of the Grand Bazaar, was built. Taking architect Ekrem Hakki Ayverdi's great book into account, by the end of the 15^th there were about three hundred schools-medresses (mosque-schools), baths, and other public and social service buildings. However, the first great monument of Turkish civilization in the city was the Mosque of Fatih and very big complex around it of hospital, public food kitchen for the poor, and cultural institutions like university, etc. The Mosque of Fatih was built on the site of the ancient church of the Apostles, that is Constantine's church.

With the finest of views and on the slopes securely separated from the center of the city, the Topkapi Sarayi was built on the Acropolis in 1462. Therefore to the silhouette of the city was added the oriental arched style of the Kiosk of Fatih. As a result, ships approaching the city started to see the outlines of an increasing oriental city: Istanbul was taking on its characteristic shape by Turks.

The first Turks began to settle within and around the castles of Rumeli Hisari (The Castle of Europe) and Anadolu Hisari (The Castle of Anatolia) on the Bosphorus. The public building complex (kulliye) of Beyazit II was constructed on and around the Forum Tauri in the beginning of 16^th. Constructing the complexes of Selim I (1522), ªehzade (1544-1548) and Suleymaniye (1550), the Turks had a etendency to establish majestic buildings on the rails above the Golden Horn, in contrast to Byzantine practise. De novo in the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent the area along the boulevard between Beyazit Square and the walls was being stuffed with great mosques, much as the one built in the name of Suleyman's daughter (Mihrimah) at the Edirnekapi entrance of the city, and with smaller institutions among them. As of old, the most intensely populated section of the city was the side facing the Golden Horn. Thirty percent of the religious buildings were built here. With the erection of the Blue Mosque in the early 17^th century the Turkish character of the city and its landscape was completed, and this appearance has stayed same up to this day.

In the time of Beyazit II big and severe earthquakes damaged stone constructions and the nomadic tradition or preference for wooden construction caused the rise of a taste for wooden buildings. Evm though this general taste, which continued till quite recently, was the main reason of the production of many masterpieces of buildings, they have not been able to lean against the pressures of time.   

The 17^th century was a period during which the construction of monumental buildings came to a stop. The area outside the walls of Galata between the Tunnel and Galatasaray began to fill up. The French Embassy was constructed here in 1581. The permission for building the Church of St. Louis was issued in 1628. The streets between the Tunnel and Galatasaray had been laid out by the end of the 17^th century. The summer houses of the aristocracy, known as yali's, were greatly increased in number during this century.

Communication around the city was mainly carried on by water. For this reason, places where landing stages could not be built, for example along the steep bluffs between Uskudar and Haydarpasa, did not become thickly settled. The Golden Horn, one of the finest natural harbors in the world, sheltered a good many commercial establishments. Many of the districts there today bear names of these establish merits, such as Unkapani (Hour Warehouse), Hasir Iskelesi (Wicker Landing), Yemis iskelesi (Fruit Landing), and Odun Kapisi (Firewood Gate). Galata became the entrepot for goods in transit from East to West. By the seventeenth century the city had completely acquired its eastern character. Because the Turkish population, possessors of a tradition of spacious mansions surrounded by gardens and places of worship with large courtyards, were strangers to the ancient aesthetic traditions of classical cities. with their boulevards and public squares, these Roman boulevards and squares were done away with and filled up with houses. The streets were of a width suitable for horseman and pedestrians. A style of colorful wooden house-construction dominated the city. All Western travelers agree in describing the city as unrivalled in the beauty of its setting of harbor and countryside but very dirty within.

The peaceful character of the eighteenth century Ottoman Empire ushered in the poetic and flower centered era known as the Lale Devri (Tulip Period), the public works of which added to the physiognomy of the city. The imposing architect’s styles of the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods of the West were introduced to Istanbul. At Kagithane was adorned with the Sadabad complex, begun in 1721 - 1722, of marble quays, water canals extending inland, bridges, pools, and magnificently colorful wooden mansions. The Golden Horn and the Bosphorus as far as Bebek were lined with rich waterside mansions. The Grand Vizier Nevsehirli Ibrahim Pasha introduced the painting in white or pastel colors of these basically wooden mansions, and for ten years the Bosphorus was turned into a veritable garden of magnolias. Of these architectural gems of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, not one example survives today, with the exception of the Amcazade Yalisi at Kanlica. Lady Mary Whortley Montagu depicts the Ayse Sultan palace at Uskudar as extremely beautiful. During the same period Istanbul was enriched by the monumental fountains behind St. Sophia, at the Square of Uskudar, and many other places.

Above Galata the Tunnel Street was extended to Taksim at the end of the eighteenth century, while the slopes of Cihangir were joined to the shores of Tophane. A photograph presumably taken during the Crimean War shows the Taksim Square region as completely empty and uncultivated.

The need for reform was first realized in the Ottoman Empire of the eighteenth century, and the first reforms were made in connection with the army. This development gained for Istanbul a new type of building: barracks built in the Western style. During this period there were added to the face of the city the huge edifices of Selim at Tophane and Uskudar, the three-storied Kalyoncu Barracks built by Cezayirli Hasan Pasha, Vizier under Abdulhamit I, the Topcu (Cannoneers) Barracks built at Taksim by Halil Pasha in 1780, and the great Humbarahane Barracks built by Selim III in Halicioglu beyond Eyup.

We can learn about the rest of the city, from the great album of the artist Melling, who lived in Istanbul under Selim III. At the edge of the city, the present day appearance of the heights of Topkapi Palace was complete. On the other hand the shore by the Seraglio was not empty as it is today. One after the other in a row, beautiful kiosks and palaces filled up the shoreline without a break. On the shore outside the Seraglio walls there were several kiosks, the space between the shore and the building complex above was occupied by gardens and woods. Yedikule ("The Seven Towers") was then a splendid chateau still crowned with conical roofs. Opposite Eminonu Harbor the pure white quarriea store of Yeni Cami rise up. In front of it ware small buildings sheds, hundreds of rowing and sailing boats, and trees.

The Golden Horn had become thickly settled. On the Galata shore beyond Haskoy only the waterside was inhabited. The hillsides were forested. From Kasimpasa to Galata the hills were one great cemetary. On the slopes of Galata looking down on the Bosphorus and the ridges of Findikli and Tophane, embassies had been built. Taksim and beyond were still rural and empty. The Bosphorus developed along the shore. Only a few villages such as Arnavutkoy and Anadoluhisari had spread upward the hilltops.

Both in the Bosphorus and in city, many of the houses wore built in quite a different manner from those of the following centuries. Following the architectural pattern of Anatolia, they had a massive and closed ground floor with blind walls, above which were one or two wooden stories. Only the Seraglio and the great houses had habitable, windowed, normally fitted-out ground floors.

The first bridge joining the two shores of the Golden Horn was built, only for pedestrians, by Mahmut II in 1836 the place where the Ataturk Bridge is today. Abdulmecit I moved to the Palace of Dolmabahce on the shore, a building finished in 1856 in the Empire style. Under the same Sultan the bridge of Galata was built first time in 1845. In the first years of the reign of his brother Abdulaziz Topkapi was damaged by a fire. But the first real destruction there was brought about by the construction in 1874 of the Edirne-Istanbul railway. The route of the railway was made to pass along there by the express wish of the Sultan, and all the buildings along the shore, each more beautiful than the next, were demolished. Thus Istanbul lost one of the most important components of its landscape and one of its corners passed like a dream into past history. The subway (Tunel) going up from Galata (still in existence) was begun in 1871 and opened in 1875. The Beyoglu side of the city was taking on somewhat the appearance of a European city of the time. In 1869 an exotic and picturesque addition came to the streets of Istanbul: the horse-drawn tramway! With a barefoot runner going ahead to clear the road, the horsedrawn cars began to speed along the narrow streets.

In 1874 the gasometer at Dolmabahce was set up and the chief streets of the city were lighted up with elegant lanterns on iron poles in the style of the Paris of the time. The finest examples of these lamps are to be seen in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum and the garden of Dolmabahce Palace. As for the poles themselves, they have been installed in the squares of Sultanahmet and Sehzadepasa and electrified. Before this time the city streets were not lighted. Inside the buildings lamps with wicks and olive oil or beeswax were lit. In the middle of the nineteenth century these were supplemented by coloured candies from Europe. When going out into the streets it was necessary to carry a lantern. These lamps were made with a brass framework holding crystal glass, or in the place of the glass, thin leather or coloured and decorated wax paper used. The art of lantern-making was a highly developed and delicate profession in Istanbul.

In 1855 Municipality along Western lines was established. Around 1865 the first important city-planning operations were undertaken fan the widening of the Divanyolu Street. In connection with this, the Beyazit Square was laid out in 1870. A massive building near St, Sophia in neoclassic style, begun in the time of Abdulmecit by the Swiss architect Fossati (the restorer of St. Sophia) and which for years spoiled the skyline of the city, was burned at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Abdülmecit in 1853 had the Kucuksu summer-palace built, lying on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus like a bit of frozen pearl. In 1865 his brother added downstream from it the great palace Beylerbeyi. The Ciragan Palace, built by the same sultan between Besiktas and Ortakoy in 1874 was, until it burned up in 1911, the richest and most splendid palace in the city.

In Abdulhamit’s time, the most important additions to the physiognomy of the city were the railway buildings. As a product of the German 'drive to the East' policy, and stimulated by the visit of the Kaiser, in 1887 the Sirkeci Railway Station was built in a mixture of architectural styles. The German Neo-Renaissance Haydarpasa Station rose to adorn the silhouette of the Asian shore. In 1895 the Galata Harbor and quays were built; these are the buildings which shut off the shore between the new Yolcu Salonu and Tophane. The quay here is 750 meters long. A quay an anchorage half this size was built in 1300 at Sirkeci (on the site of the Byzantine harbor) so that the row of buildings stretching from the Eminonu end of the bridge to the skirts of Topkapi Palace could be torn down in 1967 to provide the attractive shore road and ferryboat landings that are there now.

Beginning in the nineteenth century, just as everywhere in the world technology was gaining in importance, so too in Istanbul we see that the great buildings were no longer religious but barracks, banks, embassies and palaces ail non-religious in function. However, one destructive development of the ninteenth century was the industrialization of the Golden Horn. In 1828 a rope factory arid a fez factory struck the first blow at the lovely mansions and flower gardens that lined the shore inward from Unkapani. Several Sultan's palaces had to be torn down to make room for these constructions. This was a period when the Turkish economy in order not to be crushed under the impact of the developing heavy industry of Europe, was striving to pass from handicrafts to industry. In this desire and effort aesthetic considerations were sacrificed to technology. But the growing success of European policies led to the imposition of its own industry: the Turkish purpose was not achieved and the landscape remained destroyed. From that time to this these shores have been abandoned to uncontrolled small industry, and the unpleasant and ugly prospect that we see today had taken hold.

In the city, which still shelters an Eastern atmosphere and a Turkish character, pseudo-European enterprises and buildings cropped up from time to time: In 1863 at the Sultanahmet square en industrial exhibition that had a European type iron construction, looking like an airplane hangar, was set up.In 1882 the Archaeological Museum was built in a Neo Greek style In Gulhane park, at that time the seraglio gardens, landing its own atmosphere to this area and making a strong contrast to the fifth century Cinili Kiosk across from it.

In Abdulhamit’s time Galata and Beyoglu, that is Bankalar and Istiklal streets (the letter then called Pera), were enriched with several handsome examples of nineteenth century European architecture. Along with those of the Palace architect Raimondo d'Aronca, works by such architects as Vallaury, Barborini and Perpignani are still extant. Barborini designed the branch office of the Municipality at the head of Sishane square. It was erected at the time of the first mayor of the city Blacque Bey. The handsome building next to it of quarried stone and with wooden shutters is the work of Vallaury, who was also the architect of the Union Française further up the street, the Ottoman bank behind Yeni Cami and the Duyunu Umumiye (Public Debt) building at Cagaloglu. In the time of Sultan Mehmet Resat that is on the eve of World War I the architects Vedat Bey and Kemaleddin Bey attempted to synthesize the classical Ottoman architecture in various ways with the latest requirements of the times. Among these not entirely successful examples of a new style are the Buyuk Vakif Han behind Eminonu square and the main Post Office building at Sirkeci.

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TOPKAPI PALACE- TOPKAPI SARAYI

Topkapı Palace is one of the most important places to be seen in Istanbul. The first outer gate of the Palace we come to is called the Bab-i Humayun, or Imperial Gate; it was built in 1459, 6 years after the Conquest. After his victorious entry into the city, the young Conqueror Mehmet II retired to rest in the Old Seraglio of the time, which is today the University of Istanbul at Beyazit, he did not move to Topkapi until some time later, after the Palace had been properly fitted out. Thus this gate, which goes back to the Conqueror's reign, itself, comprises a separate building, with two domed bedrooms at the sides, two storerooms, an entresol reached by a staircase, three guard-rooms and two latrines. This exterior section of the Sultan's residence was called "Kapicilar Ocagi"; it was opened at the time of the morning prayer and locked after the evening prayer.



In the interior at a point called "Kubbealti" (Under the Dome) the state functionaries met every Tuesday, the day set aside for deliberations. People having business with one of the government departments, merchants and traders and those with relatives serving inside the Palace, had to announce their identity in advance and explain the purpose of their visit.

This entrance gate into the Seraglio was the scene of important happenings, some of them bloody, in Ottoman History. Men of State, great personages of the Empire were executed here, Governors of imperial Provinces were hanged, the ringleaders of revolts had their severed heads exposed on these outer walls. Viziers, men of learning, and foreign ambassadors visiting the Palace could pass through the gate either on foot or on horseback, to arrive at the second entrance. After crossing the Bab-i Humayun, we come to an open space known as the First Courtyard of the Palace. At the farther end of this we see the Second Gate, called the Middle Gate, or Bab-us-Selam (Gate of Salutation).

The great gate before us now is known as the Middle Gate; it is the Gate of Salutation (Bab-us-Selam). It is flanked on either side by a tower of planed stone. The gate dates from Fatih (The Conqueror), the towers belong to the period of Suleyman Magnificent; all three underwent alterations after the Conquest of Hungary, being then endowed with a Hungarian style. In accordance with Palace regulations, persons entitled to the use of horse or carriage were obliged to descend from them at this threshold of the Bab-us-Selam and proceed on foot. Only the sovereign had the right to pass through the second gate on horseback.

Tourists also are required to abandon their vehicles at this point, thus obeying a historic ordonnance! By an amendment not foreseen in history the taking of photographs is allowed and tickets for both tourist and camera are obtainable at the ticket office.

THE BLUE MOSQUE- SULTANAHMET CAMİİ

 However, when entering Istanbul Harbour from the sea, one is struck by the majesty of the Blue Mosque with its tall slender minarets and half and full domes atop one another causing the building to rise in gracious curves. Observed next St. Sophia which is massive and thick, the Blue Mosque caresses the eye like a beautiful flower or a princely gem cut by a master craftsman. On entering the Mosque, by lifting the curtain at the door, every one, whatever his national or religious origin, is struck with the blue mist seeming to fall from the colored windows and faiences, the coolness reaching the soul.

The Mosque of Sultan Ahmet and its dependent building were built in the years 1609-1619. The Mosque is surrounded on three sides by a wide courtyard which may be entered by any of five doors. The front is surrounded by twenty-six granite pillars with marble stalactite heads, supporting thirty domes. In the middle of this marble paved front yard sits a hexagon-shaped columned Sadirvan (washing fountain): its effect is striking. The front yard has three entrances; the main door, in the west, possesses a noble style. The Mosque has itself three doors. The one entering from the courtyard is the largest and is still in use today.

The interior of the Mosque is a huge rectangle with a length of 51,65m and a width of 53.40m. The diameter of the main dome is 22.40 m. and it stands 43 meters high at its central point. The dome rests on four semi-arches and four pendentives; all of these arches correspond to four semi-domes. The corners carry four domes of smaller size, there are galleries resting on pillars. All of the walls are hooped. Two fountains have been built at the foot of the two pillars at the entrance. On three sides of the interior there are galleries resting on pillars. All of the walls are covered with marvellous faiences of blue and green reaching up as far as the upper windows. The Sultanahmet Mosque derives its worldly-known name of "The Blue Mosque" from the luminous quality of these faiences. It is surprisingly bright inside the Mosque due to the light pouring in through two hundred and sixty windows; but unfortunately these windows do not contain the original stained glass any longer. Up until the late 18th century however, the rugs and faiences of the Mosque appeared even more lustrous under the mystic lights of the original windows.

The architect of the Mosque was Mehmet Aga, known as «Sedefkar», (worker of mother-of-pearl). We read the life story of Mehmet Aga from a hand-written book called the «Brochure of Engineering» written by a contemporary of his, Cafer Celebi. According to this book which is at present in the Topkapi Palace Library, he had started his career as a gardener at the Mausoleum of Sultan Suleyman. Later he was appointed to the Palace garden and there he started working on mother-of-pearl in which he excelled from the very beginning. In addition to this, he was a talented musician and had mastered mathematics and geometry. Mehmet Aga entered the Corps of Janissaries in 1562. After a succession of increasingly important duties he was appointed to the Water Administration. After being promoted from this position, Mehmet Aga built many mosques, fountains, and other edifices. He repaired the Kaaba and became one of the outstanding architects in the world.

According to the famous «Seyyahatname» of the great Turkish traveller, Evliya Celebi, a suitable place for the Blue Mosque has been sought for a long time. The southern part of the Byzantine Hippodrome was selected as the best area due to its proximity to the Palace and its large flat surfaced area. This area was also right next to its competitor St. Sophia and over looked the sea. The Sultan paid thirty thousand talents of gold dinars from his own treasury to the owner of the property, Ayse Sultan, who herself was related to the Dynasty.

The time chosen for laying the cornerstones was a sunny but cold day in January, 1609. The head architect Mehmet Aga had determined the positions of the main pillars, niche, and courtyard after measuring the site with a ruler in one hand and an amber rosary in the other. All the state officials were gathered together. A platform had been built at a prominent place for the Sultan and his throne placed on it. The young Sultan Ahmet I had come from the Palace with a sable-skin falling from his shoulders. The Sheikhulislam, high officals of the Moslem Judiciary, the Grand Vizier, viziers, and governors all had helped in laying the first foundations. Finally, the Sultan had approached the foundations wearing the magnificent headgear (kavuk) with tiara representing the foot of Mohammed. His sable-skin coat's skirt was filled with stones and earth. As the sun sparkled from his diamond encrusted «kavuk» he had poured the stone-earth mixture into the foundation, dedicating it with his famous words: «O, Allah! It is the service of Ahmed, your believer, accept it!»

During the years of construction after this ceremony, the young Sultan Ahmet, who was very anxious to see the Mosque completed, visited the site every Friday and aided the workers in their tasks. His ideal was to make the Blue Mosque greater than St. Sophia which stood nearby as a constant reminder of the magnitude of the undertaking.

The Mosque when completed in 1616 was a work of grandeur. Twenty one thousand forty three pieces of valuable porcelain wares, each costing eighteen «akce» covered the walls. The carved marble of the pulpit was a great work of art. Silk carpets graced the floors and hundreds of crystal chandeliers dangled from above. The Sultan had ordered the jewelled chandeliers in his treasury to be placed in the Mosque. Inside the lower window niches were placed hundreds of Korans ornamented with gold and other water colors. One thousand one hundred and eighty one talents of gold and two thousand nine hundred and forty four «akce» were spent from the Sultans treasury for the construction of the Mosque. In addition to this the janissaries and the cavalry soldiers had worked without any wages: white one group was working the other rested, and the following day they changed places. Even the state officials had presented many gifts for the furnishing of the Mosque. The Sultan also built several pious foundations around the Mosque such as hospitals, schools and guesthouses, through the passing years, however, most of them have been closed because of fires and financial reasons.

During its lifetime, the Mosque has seen many rebellions interrupt its silent and mystical life. In fact, Sultan Mahmut II, one of the outstanding rulers in the Ottoman history, proclaimed the decree abolishing the Corps of janissaries in the Blue Mosque in 1826. Today this mosque of Sultanahmet rests as a tribute to the great past of the Turkish nation.

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Suleymaniye Mosque is the masterpiece of Sinan's genius; its aspect of grandeur and the classical proportions of its features are witness to the sure taste which presided at the construction of this unequalled and unsurpassable work. The sanctuary seems to caress the blue sky, and its harmonious dome invites us to think of the sumptuous centuries of the past, and carry us back by a retrospective imagination. The domes, the cupolas, the arcades are of a proportion and harmony in which everything has been studied and contrived to enchant the gaze. We wonder how such a mosque could have been realised, without floridity, without superfluous ornament... It is the mystery of its creator's talent...

It was Suleyman. the Law-Giver, called also the Magnificent, who presided at the construction of this mosque, which bears his name, Suleymaniye. During 46 years of his reign the Ottoman Empire reached the peak of its splendour; and the monarch seemed to rule his country from the height of the throne as from the sumit of a mountain... Suleyman well deserved the surname of "Legislator" for the great work he carried out in law and its codification. A great medal with his portrait in relief hangs in the American Parliament Chamber in honour of his memory.

The era of Sultan Suleyman was a golden age of literature, science, arts, technology, geography and military tactics. His strong personality identified itself with each ot these subjects. He presided in his sovereign manner over the whole knowledge, the science, the good taste and the leisure of his great century. It was on returning from his victorious campaign in Hungary that Suleyman the Magnificent decided on the construction of this unique sanctuary.

The builder of the mosque was the architectural genius Sinan, designer of thousands of hans, bridges, mosques, aqueducts and roads, whole his sovereign symbolised the glory and progress of his century. The mosque was begun in 1550 and finished in 1557. It is related that in order to strengthen the foundations, they dug down to sea-level.

A great courtyard with columns of antique marble surrounds the sanctuary; the porphyry columns placed on either side of the entrance gate are 90 cm in diameter; ten of the others are in white marble and the remaining twelve in granite. It is supposed that they come from the Hippodrome. The capitals are in the classical Turkish style.

The courtyards central fountain, which is square in shape is a rarity in that it is very carefully sculpted and the marble is held within a mesh of gilt bronze.

The interior of the mosque, which is spacious and fresh, is 57 metres by 60 metres, giving an area of 3420 square metres, surmounted by an imposing dome which has sent more than one thinker into reverie; there are two lateral cupolas and two other half-domes; the whole, placed on two massive vaults, welcomes us and invites devotion and pious admiration.

The great dome is 53 metres in height: it admits the daylight by 138 windows. At the four comers are placed four pillars in porphyry, two from Alexandria in Egypt and two taken from old palaces and churches of Istanbul The echo inside the mosque is one of the distinctive features of the building. If someone touches lightly with his foot a piece of the wood at the base of the columns, this slight sound is amplified and repeated, as anyone visiting the mosque can try for himself. This acoustic phenomenon has puzzled generations of master masons, but the mysteries of Sinan’s genius are unfathomable (his works, his writings, his memories are innumerable.)

Speaking of his architectural works Sinan said: the mosque of Sehzade is the work of a "Companion", the Suleymaniye of a "mason", and the Selimiye of Edirne of a "master-mason", arrived at mastery of his art.
Leaving the Suleymaniye by the east, we see the tomb of Suleyman and of his wife Hurrem Sultana (Roxelane) in the middle of the garden. Besides Sultan Suleyman, who rests in a pillared mausoleum, a speciality of the Great Sinan, other princes of the dynasty are buried nearby. The little mausoleum of Roxelane is remarkable for the colours of the tiles which decorate it.

But dominating everything are the four minarets of the Suleymaniye, which seem to pierce the sky but at the same time to protect those who sleep their last sleep in the shade of the balconies. These minarets, of which two are furnished with two balconies and the other two with three, have their history: the two first, with their four balconies symbolize the four monarchs whose reigns preceded that of Suleyman the Magnificent after the conquest of Constantinople, the total number of balconies amounts to 10 and signify that up to that time 10 Ottoman sovereigns had reigned over the Empire.

The Süleymaniye also includes a university, besides the sanctuaries and mausoleums contained in its enclosure, which represents everything needful for civilization; a theological school and hospital, of which one has been modernized as a gynecological clinic, are contained within the area of the enclosure; little shops for the use of artisans flank one wing of the mosque. To the south was the Department of the Cheikh-Al-Islamat, the main religious center during the Empire; student's lodgings, poorhouses and a canteen which distributed food to the needy; all these dependent buildings have been converted into a museum.

From the terrace of the mosque there is a superb view of the town. Up to now it is from Galata (Karakoy) Bridge that you have admired the Suleymaniye, now from the height of this sanctuary you can admire the historic city and see the bustle and animation of its streets and harbour. You will further understand what a gift our ancestors had for choosing the sites of their residences in the Metropolis. The great mosques, which crown our city with their majestic beauty, have been placed with a discriminating aesthetic sense at points dominating the various districts with their splendid architecture.

Thus, taking into consideration the architectural role of our sanctuaries it has been decided to forbid the erection of buildings damaging to the view and the beauty of the Suleymaniye, both those liable to block the view and those interfering with the perspective. The upper storeys of the Biological Institute have even been demolished and an order has been issued to decrease the height of the Manufacturers Blocks projected or in course of construction on the Boulevard Ataturk.

And now would you care to ask yourself where Sinan, the great architect of Suleymaniye lies? Well, he reposes modestly in a simple mausoleum of marble, in the vicinity of the imposing mosque... As a Turkish author, Rusen Esref said of him, he wished to sign his great work humbly, in the margin.

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Kariye, from the Greek "Chora" meaning village or even merely district, shows that this historic monument was originally only a very small church, a sanctuary built outside the walls by Constantine the Great. After Theodosius had enlarged the area within the walls, the sanctuary found itself included in the city limits. Later, under the Paleologus emperors, the meaning of the word "chora" having changed, this church representing the Son of God in his most spiritual aspect, saw its importance increasing, the more so since a monastery was instituted in the sanctuary.

Under the reign of Justinian, the church, which was little more than a ruin, was restored by a monk named Theodorus. But the terrible earthquake of October 6 in, 557, destroyed the church. Subsequently Justinian had it totally reconstructed.

Now a basilica, it was sacked by the iconoclasts under Constantino Copronymus (741-775), and once again restored. After 846 there is no mention in Byzantine annals of the church, which had fallen into disuse and was merely a ruin up to the reign of Alexus Comnenus, whose step-mother Maria Doukain, wishing to dedicate a sanctuary to Jesus Christ, had it totally restored and improved, it was at this time that the church took on its present architectural form. In 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, the Latins did not sack the church, but in the 14th century it fell once again into a state of disrepair. Under the Emperor Andronicus II Theodorus Methochites, scholar and humanist, decided on the restoration of the church and the restoration of the church and the monastery. It is to him that we owe the wonderful mosaics and splendid frescoes that we admire today. But having incurred the displeasure of the Emperor, exiled and in disgrance, Methochites saw his possessions confiscated. Andronicus III, seizing the church, burned the palace of Methochites that was situated nearby Theodorus Methochites, resuming from his exile, lived in the monastery as a humble monk and was buried in front of the church that he had so beautified. It was in this church that the historian Nicephorus Gregorus, also fallen into disgrace, remained imprisoned. After the conquest of the city by Fatih, the church remained as it was up to the reign of Sultan Beyazit II, when it was converted into a mosque on the orders of the Grand Vizier Ali Pasa, who according to custom added to it a religious school or medrese, to which in 1776 on the orders of the Grand Eunuch Besir Aga, was added an alms-house with free distribution of food to the poor, as well as a second school.

In time, the mosaics which had been covered in chalk, reappeared. And from the beginning of the present century they could be clearly seen.

Under the Republic, the repair of the mosque was undertaken by the Vakif Department, which converted it into a museum. Members of the American Byzantine Institute, with admirable patience, washed the mosaics one by one, repaired the building and transformed it into the gem that we admire today. As soon as we enter the church, in the exterior narthex, we see some superb mosaics representing the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus. Afterwards we come to an inner Narthex, also covered with same very beautiful mosaics.

The Church comprises on the main building a baptistery and additive recess. Surrounded by annexes, the central building and its floor, as well as the wall of the exterior narthex, are covered with colored marble. The mihrab which dates from the Osmanli era is also covered with the same marble. The building comprises a large dome surrounded by five smaller domes. There is a square in front of the church where vehicles can park, all the more easily since the school and the alms-house have now disappeared.

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Beyazit, son of the Conqueror Mehmet II had it built the mosque of Beyazit in 1501-1505. It is one of the classical examples of Osmanli Architecture. The placing of the courtyard and the gates reflect the Seljuk influence; the arcades of the courtyard rest on 20 columns of green and grey granite, the white marble capitals and the marble stalactites depending from them, are in the Turkish style; the 24 cupolas rising from the columns follow the encircling line of the monument. The entrance to the mosque has a feature peculiar to itself, not found elsewhere, it encloses the stalls of rosary sellers and parfumiers specialising in sweet-smelling essences. The interior of the mosque is simple in plan, being a variation on that of Saint-Sophia. The central dome is supported by two half-domes which themselves rest on two solid columns. These columns, 6 meters in height and 1 meter 40 cm in circumference, are made of Egyptian porphyry.

The present bareness of the square may surprise you, but scarcely ten years ago it was one of the most beautiful in Istanbul, with a fine pool jetting miniature cascades among the leafy foliage of the trees and shrubs, an abundance of greenery to rest the gaze, the noble reflections of the mosque in the still waters of the pool... Everything which gives value to this square belongs to the service of history: buildings, private mansions, ancient edifices, etc...

The builder of this beautiful mosque, which bears his name, the Sultan Beyazit, had an lmaret built opposite to it, and a little further down, at the beginning of the boulevard, a Hamam with twin cupolas. As for the Hamam, it awaits a renewal of life to resume its activities; the Imaret has become a large municipal library. To the right rise the monumental gates of the University, which were originally, in the Ottoman era, the portals of the War Ministry. The University buildings situated in the garden belonged originally to the War Department; to the right of the gateway are the rectory offices, to the left those of the teachers; the central building in the interior of the garden is used for meetings organised by the University, and one part of it serves as the administrative section.

Right at the beginning the Conqueror had a wooden palace built on the present site of the University garden. After the building of the Topkapi Palace, this wooden palace was given the title of Old Seraglio and was used to accomodate the aged ladies of the Palace and those who, either by the death or deposition of a Sultan, had forfeited their rank.

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The mosque constructed at the Conqueror's orders was designed by a great architect named Sinan the Elder. Begun in 1463, it was finished in 1471. The mosque was composed of two large complete domes and a semi-dome on the mihrab side. It had two minarets, each with a balcony, and with lead-covered pinnacles. All round the mosque, cultural and social centres were installed.

The nature of these can be judged by the remains existing today. We should like to draw your attention to the fact that this mosque was built in the 15th century. During this period ninety-nine percent of the world was plunged in ignorance and superstition. In European countries the level of civilisation was so primitive that those unfortunate enough to be afflicted with mental illness were burned alive in the belief that they were possessed by the devil. At a time when Europe was sunk in this state, here is what a European traveler wrote about this mosque. Nicolas de Nicolay, geographer to the court of King Francis, I, who came to Istanbul in 1540, had this to say:

«The most beautiful and the richest of the mosques is that of the Conqueror, which has an annual revenue of 60 thousand ducats. All round the mosque are the dwellings of the imam and the ulemas, and in addition there are 200 houses with domes covered with lead, catering for visitors of all races and religions. Visitors passing through the city can stay here with their servants without making any payment. Outside the walls of the mosque there are 150 houses reserved for the poor of the city. To the unfortunate persons seeking refuge here is given each day one akce (a sum of money) and enough bread. But since many of the poor do not care for this style of life, a lot of the houses remain empty, and the money thus saved is distributed among the city hospitals."

In another building free medicines were given to those who came and asked for them. And a special house was reserved for the mentally sick. Sultan Mehmet had guaranteed these institutions an income of 60,000 ducats, and this was doubled by the fact that the revenue from Aya Sofya and its shops, as well as the main stores in the city, were devoted to these institutions.

One of the oldest statutes concerning the institutions founded by Fatih is a document in Arabic. According to the information left by those learned in the Arabic language concerning this document, Fatih founded 6 houses of instruction under the name of "Medarisi-Semaniye" and behind these 8 smaller schools called "Tetimme". On the west side of the mosque, for the use of these cultural centres, he founded a library and a hospital in which every disease was treated. A "Tibiae" was built for savants traveling through or visiting Istanbul, as well as for tourists. According to Vakfiye in each of these eight schools there were eight teachers for the sciences and theology. The study of science included philosophy, history, the natural sciences, geography, grammar and algebra. The religious sciences consisted of the study and exegesis of the Koranic law and the commandments of the Prophet. These teachers were paid 50 dirhems a day, about 250 silver kurus. Beside each teacher was an assistant with a salary of 50 silver kurus a day.

Still according to the Vakfiye, two doctors, a surgeon, a pharmacist and a sufficient number of nurses and orderlies were employed in the hospital. Rules governing cooking and the type of foods to be distributed were written down to the smallest detail. The schools called "Tetimme" were for primary studies; ones these were over the student moved into the eight schools.

At the head of all those responsible for the running of these schools was the Conqueror himself. This Sultan was not only an intellectual but a great poet too, who knew Arabic and Persian and read the Greek classics as well as all the interesting works of the period. A Byzantine chronicler, Kritovoulos, who wrote a biography of Fatih, relates that the Conqueror interested himself particularly in those schools of Greek philosophy dealing with Stoicisim and the peripatetic doctrine.

The great orientalist Deisman enumerates 587 non-moslem works in the library left by Fatih in the Topkapi Palace. The young monarch Mehmet II was one of those rulers, rare in the world, able to assimilate at the same time the Eastern and the Western cultures. The learned men whom Fatih appointed at the head of these schools were authorities on their subjects well above the other savants of the period. Among them, a Turk from Central Asia, Ali Kuscu, was one of the finest mathematicians and astronomers of his epoch. He wrote two scientific works in Persian, at present in the library of Aya Sofya. which remain authoritative, even after the passing of so many centuries, another mathematician, Sinan Pasa, who had made a profound study of philosophical skepticism, arrested for some reason, was freed after colleagues of his had threatened to burn their books and leave Istanbul. An outstanding proof of the freedom enjoyed by schools in Turkey, a freedom unexampled elsewhere at that period. Two other great authorities were the doctor Altuncuzade and the astronomer Hoca-Zade. A work on their studies in physics and astronomy is in the Vienna Library under No. 1445.

It is thus that the torch of science flamed 500 years ago in the buildings which surround us. The fact that the Ottoman Empire could make its domination accepted for 400 years constitutes an irrefutable proof of its cultural, scientific and technical supremacy. Here on the spot you are afforded the tangible evidence of it.

To return to the mosque at the centre of this complex, an earthquake in 1766 having caused very severe damage, the sultan of the day, Mustafa II, had what remained demolished and rebuilt the mosque in its present form. The inauguration of the reconstructed mosque took place on Friday the 15th of April 1772. The Blue Mosque was chosen for the new construction. The first courtyard was preserved in the form it had in the time of Fatih. The multicolored faiences above the windows are of the period of Fatih. In the courtyard 18 granite columns support 22 domes. In the interior of the mosque the oval dome rests on 4 arches and 4 elephant feet with rounded edges. Besides this, 4 semi-domes are installed on 4 arches.

The pulpit of the mosque is in colored marble, the ornaments on the wall and the cupola date from the last century. The minarets were furnished with three balconies and the cones were of wood covered with lead in accordance with the classical method. After the earthquake of 1894 these cones were refashioned in stone clocks and such is the form they have preserved up to today, Around the mosque, in the gardens, besides the library of Ahmet III, there are the tombs of the great men of the century after Mehmet II.

Fatih's tomb, with its immense cupola and its door whose dome resembles in shape a vast mushroom, as well as its original entrance is s construction whose beauty deserves attention. This mosque, apart from its religious and mystical activity, was the scene of many social movements and revolts during the centuries.

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Topkapı Palace is one of the most important places to be seen in Istanbul. The first outer gate of the Palace we come to is called the Bab-i Humayun, or Imperial Gate; it was built in 1459, 6 years after the Conquest. After his victorious entry into the city, the young Conqueror Mehmet II retired to rest in the Old Seraglio of the time, which is today the University of Istanbul at Beyazit, he did not move to Topkapi until some time later, after the Palace had been properly fitted out. Thus this gate, which goes back to the Conqueror's reign, itself, comprises a separate building, with two domed bedrooms at the sides, two storerooms, an entresol reached by a staircase, three guard-rooms and two latrines. This exterior section of the Sultan's residence was called "Kapicilar Ocagi"; it was opened at the time of the morning prayer and locked after the evening prayer.

In the interior at a point called "Kubbealti" (Under the Dome) the state functionaries met every Tuesday, the day set aside for deliberations. People having business with one of the government departments, merchants and traders and those with relatives serving inside the Palace, had to announce their identity in advance and explain the purpose of their visit.

This entrance gate into the Seraglio was the scene of important happenings, some of them bloody, in Ottoman History. Men of State, great personages of the Empire were executed here, Governors of imperial Provinces were hanged, the ringleaders of revolts had their severed heads exposed on these outer walls. Viziers, men of learning, and foreign ambassadors visiting the Palace could pass through the gate either on foot or on horseback, to arrive at the second entrance. After crossing the Bab-i Humayun, we come to an open space known as the First Courtyard of the Palace. At the farther end of this we see the Second Gate, called the Middle Gate, or Bab-us-Selam (Gate of Salutation).

The great gate before us now is known as the Middle Gate; it is the Gate of Salutation (Bab-us-Selam). It is flanked on either side by a tower of planed stone. The gate dates from Fatih (The Conqueror), the towers belong to the period of Suleyman Magnificent; all three underwent alterations after the Conquest of Hungary, being then endowed with a Hungarian style. In accordance with Palace regulations, persons entitled to the use of horse or carriage were obliged to descend from them at this threshold of the Bab-us-Selam and proceed on foot. Only the sovereign had the right to pass through the second gate on horseback.

Tourists also are required to abandon their vehicles at this point, thus obeying a historic ordonnance! By an amendment not foreseen in history the taking of photographs is allowed and tickets for both tourist and camera are obtainable at the ticket office.The guards of this gate were under the orders of the "Kapucubasi Aga" (Aga-in-chief of the gatekeepers), which was one of the high posts of the Palace. This chief of the gatekeepers was responsible for communicating to those concerned the firmans (edicts) of the Imperial Divan, on which account he was received by the Valis (Governer - Generals of Provinces). Personages who had been granted an audience waited to be received in the room belonging to this Chief Gatekeeper of the Palace; those unfortunate enough to have incurred the Sultan's displeasure were tooted up in the cells below the towers, emerging to follow their destiny, either prison, forgetfulness in the bosom of their families, or the block placed outside the gate near the Executioners' Fountain.

The alter ego of the Sultan, his supreme representative, the Grand Vizier, arriving at this brilliant rank of power and splendour, becoming after he had crossed on foot the threshold of this second gate, the Lieutenant of the Empire, could always be relegated to the lowest rank at the lightest sign of the Sultan. Then he would have to give back the Imperial Seal entrusted to him in a little silk purse, and await the worst, without any help in the world, his life at stake...

Let us make our way into the second courtyard of the Palace, It was here that the janissaries received their thrice-yearly pay and swallowed down their legendary soup. Here on the two Bayrams, the "Saray Baklavasi" (Palace Baklava) is distributed. The same spot witnessed this rioting of the soldiery in revolt, the growling and yelling of the mob. In the Palace of Sultans, at present, there are sections such as kiosks and residential apartments open for public visits because of their value in architecture and furniture as well as there are sections arranged as a museum with cabinets in which valuable objects are exhibited.

However, in such a world of complicated buildings, it will be necessary to make one or two expections in our principle. For example, the entrance of the Harem happens to be in the second courtyard not far from the Middle Gate, but the exit in the third courtyard; therefore, by keeping to the right, we shall arrive at the entrance of the Harem towards the end of our visit to the Palace and having visited Harem, we shall find ourselves once more in the third courtyard and from therepass under the Gate of Felicity once more and even through the second courtyard. Opposite us can be seen the third and last of the interior gates of the Palace. Beyond a wall on our right extend the Palace kitchens, to the left we notice the building known as "Kubbe Alti".

We are going to pass through the interior gate, which gives access to the Sultan's private apartments. Here we are in the secluded, domestic domain of the sovereign. No one could enter the Sultan's house without authority. Only the Grand Vizier on certain days specified in advance and on conditions also specified in advance, could pass beneath this gate behind which was this royal audience chamber, in order to report on affairs of state. Insurgents who stormed into the Palace always came to a stop before this inviolable gate; throughout the whole course of its history it was only twice entered by rebellious forces, once at the fall of the young Sultan Osman, secondly when Alemdar Mustafa Pasa returned from Rumeli at the head of a revolutionary army to restore Selim III to the throne.

This Gate of Felicity has been the scene in our history of other remarkable vents: the accession to the throne of a new Sultan, the offering of vows at Bayrams, the ceremonial bestowal of the title of Serdar (Generalissimo) or commander in chief of an army leaving for active service. The transfer by the sovereign with his own hands of the Sacred Flag to a chosen soldier took place on the threshold of the "Bab-us-Saade". No matter what the season or the weather, the imperial throne, furnished with gilded cushions, was set up before this famous door; at ritual feasts a special throne was installed, and given the name of "Bayram Tahti" (Throne of Festivals).

The day of his accession the monarch first received the homage of the "Kizlaragasi" (Grand Eunuch) and of the chief of his personal chamberlains, the "Silahtar Aga" (sword bearer), Grand Master of the palace pages.
Only when the ceremony was completed did the sovereign seat himself on the throne. The esplanade opposite the gate was thronged with janissaries in dress uniform, the Band (Mehter), first musical ensemble to exist in an army, struck up martial airs, the soldiers applauded, and the Sultan sat enthroned, the Grand Eunuch on his right, on his left the Master of the Palace pages.

These personages, having already made the act of obedience, did not need to repeat it outside the gate; It was now the turn of other members of the court to come and pay homage and make the act of submission to their lord and master. The «Nakib-ul-Esraf» uttered a prayer for the occasion, the various officials offered their respects and their devotion, and the two Chief Porters, timing their steps to the beating of two silver batons on the ground, led the procession, which had to halt at the building known as "Kubbe Alti» (Below the Cupola). There the Grand Vizier and the viziers as well as the officials included in the protocol, were invited to kiss the hem of the Sultan's cloak.

The procession was headed by the Grand Vizir himself. and when the dignitaries reached a certain designated point (three marked flag-stones), a few paces before the throne beneath the cupola, they bowed down to the ground and humbly saluted the Padishah. At the approach of the Grand Vizier, the Sultan rose, while «Sadrazam» knel and kissed the sovereign's feet, afterwards taking up a position on the right of the throne; then it was the turn of the viziers and other notables to fulfill the same, prescribed obligation. Finally everyone withdrew by backward steps, and the ceremony was over.

When the Sultan had regained his private apartments, he ordered a bonus, called the “Gift of Accession” to be distributed among his soldiers, amounting to three months wages. This was repeated at every new accession to the throne, and was a practice which continued since 14, century. Adjacent to this gate is the Audience Room, which has already been mentioned, it comprises 22 columns and 22 vaults, and represents, with its ornamentation and cornices and roof, a specifically Turkish style of architecture. The facade is covered with coloured tiles and a fountain rests near. The building was put up in the 15th century on the orders of the Conqueror, and subsequently modified. The inscription in Persian above the fountain is a verse written by Suleyman the Law-Giver (Magnificent) and that above the door is by Ahmet III, giving in alphabetical notation the date 1724. There is another inscription in Arabic characters engraved above a second gate, the work of Mahmud II, mentioning the date 1310. It can be seen that the Turkish Sultans counted among them numerous poets and calligraphers.

To the left, below a dome, there is a throne in the form of a dais, on which some cleverly rhymed verses bear the date 1596. Of old and dated appearance now, this imperial seat should be pictured as covered with embroidery, sewn with pearls and the glistening emeralds that we shall be admiring among the beauties gathered in the Imperial Treasury (Hazine). The curtains of the room and the small pillars supporting the throne were set all over with rare stones. There is a small fountain in the interior which with the sound of its spray must have prevented anyone hearing from outside the conversations which took place there.

We said earlier that the Sultan granted audiences to foreign ambassadors and other notables in this room. The ambassadors admitted into the Sultan's presence were flanked by two Agas who supported them by the arms and helped them to prostrate themselves before the Sultan. Throughout the history, the envoy of the Czar Alexis Mihailovitch of Russia flatly refused to do this, and it was only with the difficulty that the two guards succeeded in getting him to perform the obligatory reverence! Leaving by the door in front of us, the steps will lead us towards the sloping ground by which we shall arrive at the Third Courtyard of the Palace. On the left, the first building that we see is the library of Ahmet III. It cannot be entered without a special permit.

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Church of St. Irene is of Byzantine construction and style. This was the first Christian church put up by the Byzantines in the city. When Constantine the Great took possession of the city he enlarged this church; excavations have revealed that before the church was dedicated to St. Irene, it served as a temple to Aphrodite and some other Roman Gods. In the interior of the church there is a fresco in black and white which is attributed to the pre-christian era and dates probably from the first century A.D.; while certain designs on the door belong to the 12th century B.C., one of them being Phrygian in origin. Up to the year 360 this church of Constantine constituted the city's cathedral. At that date, after the construction of Saint Sophia, these two sanctuaries, joined by a common courtyard, formed the Great Church under the title of Megalo Ecclesia.

In 381, under Theodosius, the second oecumenical council met here. Following the revolt of Nika in 532, both St, Irene and St.Sophia were devastated by fire; Justinian subsequently reconstructed St. Sophia and enlarged it, to make it the greatest of existing churches. In 740 still further improvements increased the extend of the church.

When the Turks took the city, they did not convert St. Irene into a mosque, but because of its proximity to the Palace it sewed for a long time as an arms depot; towards the end of the 19th century, Fethi Ahmet Pasa, who was Ambassador of the the Sublime Porte at the court of Louis. Philippe of France, deposited some antique remains in the church thus making it the first archaeological museum.

Following the proclamations of the Republic, Saint Irene served as a Military Museum, but in 1946 this function ceased and the church underwent extensive restorations.

Saint Irene has the form of a domed basilica. There are two rows of columns and three naves, of which the centre one is twice as wide as the other two. There are galleries above the apse and the Narthex. The semi-circular apse contains several rows of benches for the use of the faithful; two people sitting at the furthest remove from each other could still converse quite easily in low tone, a condition very favourable for hearing the chanted liturgies of the church service.

St. Irene has two cupolas; one resting on the pendentives before the nave, the other between the Narthex and the Great Dome.

After St, Irene, still on the left, we come to the old State Mint House, which had been installed here for a number of years; it has, recently, been transferred to a new building on Yildiz Avenue. To the right of the Mint House we see an oven and then another which was reserved for the baking of the Palace bread. There used to be a woodshed here when the Palace was occupied. Inside the Palace were kitchens catering for 15,000 persons. The hearths and stoves of the Seraglio, the smaller palaces, and the dependent buildings, all had their stocks of wood, tanked up against a long and ancient wall which skirted the Mint House mentioned above. The wood was brought by ship and unloaded at the port near the place called Demir Kapi, then piled up in store rooms and dispatched in accordance with local needs. The Palace woodmen were called "Zuluflu Baltacilar" (Sappers with Curved Fringes) and they belonged to a special squadron, strapping fellows from the Anatolian mountains, young and strong, distinguished by their long locks of hair curving down to the earlobes. Since their work necessarily took them into the Harem, they were compelled to wear stiff collar-wings at either side of the neck, which prevented them from easily turning their heads...

Since the Ottoman administration was never essentially aristocratic and individual merit always found preferment, several great offices of state and high military commands were filled from the ranks of these humble servants of the Seraglio. It was a former member of the sapper company, Baltali Mehmet Pasa who let his army to victory over Peter the Mad (Peter the Great) of Russia at the battle of the Pruth, crushing the Russian force as in a vice and taking the Emperor himself prisoner; it was only through the intercession of the Empress Catherine, who came in person to plead for the Tzar's life, that the latter was spared.

Skirting the wall, on our right, until we reach the end of it, we shall come to a fountain with cone-shaped stone before it. Both are associated with bloody events. Heads severed from the living body or hacked from the corpses of those put to death by order of the Palace or other authority, by the executioner's knife or the strangler's cord, were exposed for a statutory period on the column, and the high executioners washed the blood from their scimitars and axes in the fountain. Spine-chilling memories; however, we must add that the Ottomans did not practise the system of "Inquisition”, so dear to Europe. Such instruments as the nail studded torture chest were unknown here, as were various other inventions, as cruel as they were barbarous. The Ottomans took the shortest way: they contented themselves with on stroke of a keen blade to separate head from body - and that was that!

http://www.aboutturkey.com/turkey/City_Guides/Istanbul_Turkey/Saint_Irene.shtml